Knowing the history of the country your ancestors came from will go a long
way toward understanding why they came to the United States and what part 
of Europe they came from. Erik generously compiled a history of Germany
covering the years preceding the great migration and the years following
which he hopes will help you in your endeavor to find your roots in Europe.
He suggests you locate some maps covering the time in question to refer
to as you read the following.

Summary of German History  

1648-1789
After the Thirty Years´ War, Germany loses its former importance.  Political 
and economic development is retarded by Germany’s structure of numerous 
independent states. For economic and religious reasons many Germans leave 
their homes to emigrate. 

1789-1848
Rulers in Germany are watching suspiciously the French Revolution, because 
they fear that their own states might be infected by the ideas of freedom, 
equality and fraternity. When Napoleon seizes power, war spreads all over 
the continent and Europe is subjected. After Napoleon is defeated, restoration 
prevails at the Congress of Vienna. While suppressing patriotic and social 
demands, German states try to find their role in Europe. After the 1848 
Revolution, National Assembly works hard to proceed towards national unity 
and political modernisation, but fails.

1848-1914
After the 1848 Revolution, Prussia begins to dominate the other German states. 
Bismarck sets a new aim to unify Germany by force. France is defeated in the 
war of 1870-1871, and Kaiser Wilhelm I is crowned as German Kaiser. Industrial 
revolution and social reforms bring about modernisation in state and society. 
Wilhelm II tries to gain more international importance and risks the balance 
of power.



German History Part 1 (1648-1789)

For the hurried reader: After the Thirty Years´ War, Germany loses its 
former importance.  Political and economic development is retarded by 
Germany’s structure of numerous independent states. For economic and 
religious reasons many Germans leave their homes to emigrate. 

New Start in 1648

Let us begin our walk through German history at the end of the Thirty 
Years´ War in 1648. Germany lies devastated by a conflict that was an 
explosive mixture of religious and political interests. Not only had 
German Catholics and Protestants fought against each other in changing 
coalitions but also France, Sweden and Spain had sent troops to fight 
on Germany’s ground. The loss of lives is immense: it is estimated today 
that population was reduced from 16 to 10 millions; in some areas where 
war had raged badly 60 to 70 percent had died of military force, by hunger 
and disease. At last, after several years of negotiations, the Peace of 
Westphalia settles the conflict. 

As the result, Germany is looking into a future with poor chances. The 
Netherlands and Switzerland are allowed to leave Germany and get 
independent states. France pushes forward to the river Rhine; Sweden 
takes the Baltic coast with its important ports. 

Inside Germany, religious contrasts still exist, although they are tolerated 
now. Unlike the other states in Europe, Germany keeps Catholic and Protestant 
population and regents within its borders. More than that, Germany is a 
geographic term without political content. Imagine a state ruled by the Kaiser 
(Emperor) whose states are free to obey his orders or not, advised by the 
“Reichstag” in Regensburg as the permanent congress of the states, supported 
by the High Court “Reichskammergericht” that tries to solve conflicts between 
them. Imagine in this Reich there are no taxes, no administration, no army, 
even no capital city. Therefore the Reich, as the Peace of Westphalia creates 
it, is obviously a weak construction.
 
Furthermore, the Reich guarantees the independent existence of about 300 
states with nearly 2000 ruler families. Imagine a map of patchwork with lots 
of areas, larger and smaller ones, territories often torn and perforated by 
properties of neighbors. Imagine that every state uses to have its own currency, 
tolls, measures, law and army. 

Economy suffers from bad conditions. Roads and ports lie destroyed. The 
Coastline is reduced to short pieces at the North Sea and the Baltic. There is 
not enough population for a powerful start in agriculture or in commerce. 
Germany gets into stagnation and cannot keep pace with the other European states, 
when the era of colonisation and worldwide trade begins without Germany.


Enlightened Absolutism

As we have seen, the Reich forms only a framework to the German states. While 
the Reich itself uses to be ruled by the House of Habsburg (at the same time 
rulers of Austria), there are several states of importance, notably Bavaria 
(that looks for secret alliance with France), Saxony, Brandenburg (later known 
as Prussia) and Hannover. At that time, Louis XIV, the King of France, is much 
admired by the German rulers who successfully try to copy the idea of absolutism. 
Political power is concentrated in the ruler himself, everything and everyone is 
put under his personal will and aims.
 
Later in the eighteenth century, the leading Houses begin to apply the principles 
of Enlightenment. The ideal of freedom, equality, tolerance and humanity requires 
that the state have to strive for peace, welfare and personal luck. There is also 
an astonishing step forward for cultural development to the highest standard, 
especially in German literature (Lessing, Goethe, Schiller), and in music (Bach, 
Haendel, Haydn, Mozart).

The most powerful German state is Austria, which keeps its pre-eminence until 
the end of the nineteenth century. Interesting to see is the development of 
Prussia, in 1648 a small state in northern Germany known as Brandenburg. After 
having gained some holdings and small regions, Brandenburg as a participant of 
the Swedish War (1700-1721) manages to get Prussia, thus forming a remarkable 
state and 1701 entering the status of the Kingdom of Prussia. 

There is a time of peace inside Germany beginning with 1648, which only is 
spoiled by France in three campaigns, seizing parts of south-western Germany 
(Reunion of Elsass 1681, War of Pfalz 1692-1697, and Spanish Succession War 
1701-1714). These events of complete and needless destruction makes a deep 
impression on Germany that at the western frontier there exists a constant 
threat. 

Let us have a closer look on Prussia, because its rivalry with Austria has 
great influence on Germany’s development as a whole. In the interior, things 
get along well between the German states until Prussia takes up a confrontation 
with Austria in three campaigns (First Silesian War 1740-1742, Second Silesian 
War 1744-1745, War of Seven Years 1756-1763). King Friedrich (called The Old 
Fritz) takes Silesia as well as a third of the former Kingdom of Poland (1772). 
Like Prussia itself, several other German states have remarkable territories 
outside the borders of the German Reich, with a multitude of language and 
religion. Austria continues to expand into the South-West of Europe in a 
long conflict with the Ottoman Empire.



German History Part 2 (1789-1848)

For the hurried reader: Rulers in Germany are watching suspiciously the French 
Revolution, because they fear that their own states might be infected by the 
ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity. When Napoleon seizes power, war 
spreads all over the continent and Europe is subjected. After Napoleon is 
defeated, restoration prevails at the Congress of Vienna. While suppressing 
patriotic and social demands, German states try to find their role in Europe. 
After the 1848 Revolution, National Assembly works hard to proceed towards 
national unity and political modernisation, but fails.

The End of the Reich in 1806

Let us continue our walk through German history with a glance at Germany’s 
reaction to the French Revolution of 1789. At first enthusiastically welcomed 
by intellectuals for the idea of having a constitution and a bill of rights, 
disgust for the mass executions and civil war excesses becomes strong. New 
French nationalism raises fear upon German’s leading circles. In 1792, Prussia 
and Austria direct their armies towards Paris in order to regain public order 
in France and to save the Royal family, but surprisingly they fail. French 
revolutionary forces invade Austria’s Netherlands, Holland, and the Rhineland, 
and fight in Italy. Prussia hopes to get a time of relax by the Peace of Basel 
1795. However, as soon as Napoleon I seizes power in 1799, the other German 
states come under military pressure until they have to accept the Treaty of 
Regensburg 1803. Napoleon puts an end to most of the little independent states 
inside Germany. So more than 1,600 states disappear and are incorporated to the 
greater states of Bavaria, Wuerttemberg, Baden, Hessen and Prussia.

In 1805, Prussia is defeated and occupied. Napoleon calls in a Congress of all 
German leaders at Regensburg in 1806. Kaiser Franz must resign, and a tradition 
of a thousand years of German emperors ends. Napoleon organizes a structure of 
16 German states and the Kingdom of Westphalia (with his brother Jerome as the 
king) in the Rhine Confederation. Austria and Prussia are not members. 
Occupation brings about reforms and standardisation of legal codes, administration, 
measures and currencies. Economy suffers from the Continental Blockade against 
England. As for the leading circles, adaptation of French culture and even the 
use of French language can be observed, which leads to irritation and bitterness 
with common people. The Rhine Confederation serves to provide Napoleon’s 
campaigns with German soldiers.

In Prussia, defeat is taken as a humiliation. Progressive heads from military 
and administration develop a concept of serious reforms in social and military 
affairs. After a time of reconvalescence and revitalization, Prussia joins in 
an alliance with Austria and Russia. Napoleon must flee from burning Moscow. 
In 1813, (Peoples´ battle of Leipzig) and 1815 (Battle of Waterloo) France’s 
occupation of Europe ends.

Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) aims to restore states that legally existed 
before French Revolution and Napoleon’s occupation. There is strong resistance 
against reforms as to establishment of parliamentary reforms, economic freedom, 
and civil liberty. The desire to follow the ideal of the American Constitution 
and the French Revolution is well known among the delegates. Still, monarchy 
government and the nobles´ privileges prevail. Therefore, the outcome of the 
Congress is rather an agreement towards balance of power among the European 
states. Indeed the Congress enables Europe to have a time without continent-
wide war for nearly 100 years until in 1914 World War I begins.

From the German point of view, the Congress keeps to the principle that there 
must not be a unified German Reich. Congress creates the German Confederation 
including 38 sovereign states and 4 free cities. The Eastern part of Prussia 
and the Italian parts of Austria do not belong to the Confederation. To make 
confusion complete, even some foreign monarchs are members in the Confederation: 
Holstein is part of Denmark, Hannover is ruled by Great Britain, and the King 
of the United Netherlands rules as Grand Duke of Luxemburg.

We have seen that confusion after the Peace of Westphalia as well, with but one 
difference now: French Revolution and Napoleon’s occupation have put new ideas 
into the hearts and brains of German people. Firstly, there is the ideal of 
civil liberty, of course. Secondly, consciousness has emerged that there is a 
common quality of being German. To have disregarded (or better: to have beaten 
off) new German Nationalism is a reproach that is done to the Congress from 
today’s point of view. Times of overwhelming emotions in the patriotic fight 
against Napoleon are soon over: Germany’s natural chance to found a unified 
state of nation and to establish a modern political system is blocked again. 
This makes a deep and bitter impression on people and the longing for a better 
future steadily grows.

Political suppression and social tension become harder when in the 1820s 
industrialisation and capitalism begin to win influence on farmers and 
labourers´ lives. Misery and even hunger grow and become unbearable in the 1840s.

The Frankfurt Parliament

In 1848, like in many other European states, revolution turns over the 
conservative governments in Berlin, Vienna and some other German cities. Soon, 
things are conceded that have often thought impossible: the rulers promise to 
establish the right of election, representative democracy and civil liberty. 
German monarchs accept that a National Assembly with delegates from all German 
states meet in the Paulskirche in Frankfurt-on-Main (St. Paul’s Church Assembly). 
A mighty wave of patriotic enthusiasm arises all over Germany. The creation of 
a German national state seems to be at hand.

Discussion takes a long time. Should there be a “Large Germany” solution or 
“Little Germany” excluding Austria and the Habsburg Empire? In the National 
Assembly, at first consisting of single speakers with very different aims, 
groups of common interest manage to form gradually, thus preparing the later 
foundation of political parties. While in Berlin the “Workers Congress” decides 
to ask the Assembly for support for the social movement, in Vienna counter-
revolution regains power for the monarchy.
The National Assembly at last decides in favour of “Little Germany” and a 
constitutional monarchy with an Emperor (Kaiser) as a sovereign. In March 
1849, delegates elect King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia as the German Kaiser. 
A group of delegates takes a travel to Berlin in order to offer him the crown. 
However, this turns out to be a political catastrophe: with contempt and 
indignation, the King refuses to take the crown from the people, because “it 
is a crown without honour, but with the stink of revolution”.

National Assembly ends in confusion and escape. Civil war begins all over 
Germany, but is soon ended by military troops. Many rebels are killed in 
executions, others flee into exile and emigration.



German History Part 3 (1848-1914)

For the hurried reader: After the 1848 Revolution, Prussia begins to dominate 
the other German states. Bismarck sets a new aim to unify Germany by force. 
France is defeated in the war of 1870-1871, and Kaiser Wilhelm I is crowned 
as German Kaiser. Industrial revolution and social reforms bring about 
modernisation in state and society. Wilhelm II tries to gain more international 
importance and risks the balance of power.

Bismarck

In 1862, King Wilhelm of Prussia chooses Prince Otto von Bismarck as his 
minister president. The idea is to have the state ruled by a man ruthless 
enough to ignore the parliament’s right of budget, which Bismarck does. Soon 
Bismarck is involved in an increasing tension with neighbour states. At first, 
in the campaign of 1864, Denmark must hand over Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg. 
More than that, Bismarck begins to work for Prussia’s hegemony and sets into 
scene a confrontation with powerful Austria. In 1866, Prussia fights a risky 
campaign against Austria, its South Germany allies and Hannover in the North. 
Prussia succeeds in the German war and seizes remarkable territories, such as 
Hannover, Schleswig-Holstein, and Frankfurt-on-Main. Austria, Baden, 
Wuerttemberg and Bavaria are excluded from the new-founded North German 
Confederation. More than that, Austria is divided into two halves (imperial 
and royal double monarchy of Austria-Hungary).

Bismarck decides that there is a better solution instead of waiting for what 
France’s reaction to a German unification might be. He prepares for a war 
against France by a secret alliance with the South German states. To get 
support in the public opinion, old resentment against France is pushed up. 
Hate is ignited when a confrontation is set into scene (called the Emser 
Depesche Affair) from which the Germans understand that France tries to 
humiliate them. In the French War Germany invades Eastern France in September 
1870, besieges Paris until January 1871.

There is an enormous symbolical meaning in the political outcome: 
Elsass-Lothringen must leave France and is annexed by Germany, the Western 
frontier is pushed far into France. This is something that both sides will 
not forget: the cities of Metz and Strasbourg are clues to France´s and 
Germany´s national pride, as well as the frontier of the river Rhine is. 
Imagine the clash of patriotism on both sides, when in Versailles, inside 
the French Royal palace, Wilhelm of Prussia is crowned German Kaiser. This 
will be remembered for a long time.

The Second Reich

Constitution is not in favour of liberal ideas and the people’s democratic 
participation. The Kaiser’s strong position gives him personal control over 
foreign policy, the army and the declaration of war. He chooses the kanzler 
and the ministers who form the government and prepare legislation. The 
Reichstag (parliament), elected by universal male suffrage, is weak and 
cannot gain substantial influence on policy.
Germany enters into world policy as a latecomer. Bismarck establishes a fine 
web of alliances and secret treaties with other European states in order to 
safeguard the balance of power for Germany and its neighbours.

The new Reich experiences an immense growth of economy and population, partly 
because of the reparations paid by France, partly because of the change in 
economic chances (Gruenderjahre = founders´ years). Measures, weights, 
currencies, jurisdiction and laws are standardized; from the churches, the 
state takes control over schools, citizen registry and civil marriage. 

Under the impression of the industrial revolution beginning in the 1850s, 
there has been a growing social tension, like in the other European states, 
too. Leading heads of the social movement come from Germany (Marx, Engels). 
After years of severe struggle, Bismarck realizes a danger for Germany’s inner 
unity and development. In order to tie the working population to the state, he 
meets to the social requirements by establishing a very progressive system of 
national health insurance and old-age pensions.

Wilhelm II

In 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm I dies and few months days later his successor, too. 
Young Wilhelm II, the grandson, is crowned as the new Kaiser (Three Kaisers´ 
Year). Thus, one generation of ruling is skipped and with it, continuous 
development and experience. This gives Germany’s policy new aspects and 
direction. After a time of tension, Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck.

Wilhelm II has a different vision of what the foreign political role the 
Reich should be like. He handles the fragile construction of balanced power 
carelessly and clumsily. Germany tries to establish a colonial empire 
overseas out of old and new territories. Based on economic power, scientific 
and technical skill, an immense rearmament begins. Soon, the Kaiser manages 
to have Germany ready for war. 

For contact information, see contributors page. He will be willing to answer
German history/geography inquiries only.